One of the central themes of the Book of Numbers is that God judged Israel’s rebellion against Him. After God delivered His people from Egypt and then gave them the law at Sinai, they complained and grumbled against their God. In 1 Corinthians 10, the Apostle Paul uses Israel’s actions in Exodus and Numbers as a negative example for the church today. In doing so, he follows the practice of the Psalms, as we shall see.
Thus, Christians should understand the stories in Numbers as a warning against unbelief and against putting the Lord to the test. In fact, Paul teaches that the Israelites were rebelling not just against God—but specifically against Christ—in the wilderness. As Paul says, Israel “drank from the spiritual rock that followed them, and the rock was Christ” (1 Corinthians 10:4; cf. 10:9; Numbers 20:2-13). Paul’s teaching clearly shows Jesus to be God, as God is called the “rock” throughout the Old Testament, including the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32 (Deuteronomy 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31, 37).
Israel’s Example in 1 Corinthians 10:5-11
Here is Paul’s warning in 1 Corinthians 10:5-11, with possible references from Exodus and Numbers in brackets (all translations are my own):
5 But God was not pleased with most of them, for they were laid low in the wilderness [Numbers 11:1; 14:28-45; 16:31-35, 47-49; Psalm 106:14-34]. 6 Now these things happened as examples for us, so that we might not desire evil as they desired. 7 Nor be idolaters as some of them were, as it is written, “The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose to play” [Exodus 32:6]. 8 Nor let us commit sexual immorality, as some of them committed sexual immorality, and 23,000 fell in one day [Exodus 32:28, 35; Numbers 25:1-9]. 9 Nor let us test the Christ, as some of them tested, and they were destroyed by the serpents [Numbers 21:4-9]. 10 Nor grumble, as some of them grumbled, and were destroyed by the destroyer [Numbers 11:1; 14:36-37; 16:41-50; cf. Exodus 12:23]. 11 Now these things happened to them as an example, but they were written for our instruction, unto whom the end of the ages has come.
These above Old Testament references can be examined by the reader to see exactly what Paul was referring to. Throughout the Pentateuch, the Lord’s anger burned hot against sin, and the fire of Yahweh several times destroyed Israelites (Leviticus 10:2; Numbers 11:1-3; 16:35), though He used other means of judging His people (as seen from the references).
The 23,000 in 1 Corinthians 10:8
Instead of looking at all possible Old Testament references, I want to focus on one difficulty in the passage. This is Paul’s reference in 1 Corinthians 10:8, where he says:
Nor let us commit sexual immorality, as some of them committed sexual immorality, and 23,000 fell in one day.
Paul says that Israel “committed sexual immorality” (πορνεύω), which can also be translated as “to fornicate” or “to whore” (BDAG, 854). This reference in 1 Corinthians 10:8 could refer to Numbers 25:1-9. But the problem here is that Paul says 23,000 died, while Numbers 25:9 says 24,000 died. This is called the case of the “missing 1,000.” Some charge Paul with making a mental error, as 24,000 is mentioned a chapter later in the book (Numbers 26:62). Other commentators say both are approximations (in that the actual number was around 23,500) and thus both are correct (e.g., John Calvin, Charles Hodge). Others argue Numbers 25:9 only says 24,000 died, while Paul says 23,000 died “in one day,” meaning another 1,000 died later somehow. But the problem here is Numbers 25:8 says the plague was “stopped.”
However, there are two reasons for thinking that Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:8 was referring at least in part to Exodus 32. First, Paul had just quoted Exodus 32:6 (“The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose to play”) in 1 Corinthians 10:7. The Hebrew word “to play” (צחק) there could include sexual immorality, but the context is not clear. Yet Paul quotes this verse in verse 7 and then immediately follows it with—“Nor let us commit sexual immorality, as some of them committed sexual immorality, and 23,000 fell in one day” (v. 8). Paul never mentioned any judgment for the sin in verse 7. But he did mention a punishment for each rebellious case in verses 8 (“23,000 fell in one day”), verse 9 (“and they were destroyed by serpents”), and verse 10 (“and were destroyed by the destroyer”). Therefore, it is quite possible verse 7 is connected to the incident in verse 8 where the punishment is finally mentioned. In this case, Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:8 is continuing his reference to the events of Exodus 32.
Second, Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:8 uses the exact language of Exodus 32:28 from the Greek translation known as the Septuagint (LXX). Paul says 23,000 “fell” (ἔπεσαν) in one day, which is the same Greek word used in Exodus 32:28 [LXX]. This verb is not used in Numbers 25:9, which only says that 24,000 “died” (τεθνηκότες in the LXX). Paul also says this happened in “one day” (μιᾷ ἡμέρᾳ). Numbers 25 does not speak of a single day, but Exodus 32:28 does say “that day” (ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ). Thus, the linguistic similarities suggest an appeal to Exodus 32:28. Of course, the problem with this is the number of those dying that Paul gives (23,000) in 1 Corinthians 10:8 is closer to (but not identical with) that in Numbers 25:9 (24,000). That being said, Paul does say the Israelites “committed sexual immorality” (ἐπόρνευσαν) in 1 Corinthians 10:8, which is similar to the word used in Numbers 25:1 for Israel’s sexual immorality (ἐκπορνεῦσαι) (and also identical to the word used in Psalm 106:39[105:39, LXX], ἐπόρνευσαν).
To summarize the problem, (1) Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:7 clearly quotes Exodus 32:6, (2) he uses language in 1 Corinthians 10:8 from both Exodus 32:28 and Numbers 25:1, (3) but the number he gives (23,000) does not match either passage. Why then does Paul say 23,000 people “fell” when Exodus 32:28 says 3,000 people “fell” and Numbers 25:9 says 24,000 died? There are at least five possibilities:
Paul misquoted Exodus 32:28 or Numbers 25:9. The problem with this is it leaves the apostle making an error.
Paul appealed only to Numbers 25:9, and both use approximations. This was held by John Calvin and Charles Hodge, but it is uncertain how Paul would know any other number besides the 24,000 of Numbers 25:9, apart from divine revelation.
Paul was appealing only to Exodus 32:28 and included another 20,000 deaths from the “plague” God sent in Exodus 32:35. This is possible, but it is uncertain whether this plague in 32:35 was a separate event from 32:28. And if so, it is uncertain how Paul would know another 20,000 people were killed. This number is not given anywhere.
There is a textual issue either in Exodus 32:28, Numbers 25:9, or 1 Corinthians 10:8 that caused the discrepancy. Rohintan Mody mentions three text traditions as having 23,000 instead of 3,000 in Exodus 32:28: “Two Greek minuscules, 129 (11th–12th centuries), and 76 (13th century), the Coptic Boharic tradition from the 9–10th centuries and the old pre-Jerome Latin codices 103, 104 from the 5th and 6th centuries have 23,000. This suggests that this textual tradition of 23,000 at least goes back to the fourth century given that the Latin codices would have been derived from a Greek manuscript.” (Mody, “The Case of the Missing Thousand,” 69). This leaves open the possibility that this was in a Greek manuscript from which Paul got the number. However, this is not strong support for an early textual variant of 23,000 in Exodus 32:28, and it could mean Paul relied on an erroneous variant.
Paul intentionally used 23,000 as a combination of references from Exodus 32:28 (3,000) and Numbers 25:9 (24,000).[1]
A Combined Reference to Exodus 32 and Numbers 25
I think the fifth option of a combined reference to Exodus 32 and Number 25 is the best solution for the following reasons. As noted above, 1 Corinthians 10:7 clearly refers to Exodus 32:6 (Paul quotes the LXX), and no punishment is mentioned until 10:8, suggesting Paul is continuing his reference to Exodus 32 in 10:8. Since 1 Corinthians 10:9 refers to Numbers 21:4-9 (mentioning “serpents”), it makes sense that the verse in between (1 Corinthians 10:8) combines references to sexual immorality from both Exodus and Numbers, with Israel serving as an “example” for the church (1 Corinthians 10:6, 11). Strengthening this connection is that Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:8 uses LXX language from both Exodus 32:28 (ἔπεσαν) and Numbers 25:1 (Paul uses ἐπόρνευσαν, Numbers uses ἐκπορνεῦσαι). In this case, Paul intentionally used numbers from both passages to get the number 23,000. I considered this possible solution from my own study, and then after further research found it to also be the solution provided by Rohintan Mody, as well as David Garland in his 1 Corinthians commentary (Baker Exegetical Commentary, 462–463) (following the argument of Bart Koet).
There are two objections against this proposed solution, but I think responding to these will draw out details and actually strengthen the case for this solution. The first objection is that this combined reference is not a common practice in the New Testament. However, if there is good evidence for it here, that really does not matter much. Yet we should note that Psalm 106 mentions the golden calf of Exodus 32 in the middle of verses on the wilderness rebellion of Numbers (Psalm 106:19), showing there is an Old Testament precedent for linking the rebellion of Exodus 32 and those throughout Numbers.
Additionally, Rohintan Mody notes that “Philo in Spec. 3. 22 (126) has 24,000 as the number dying by the swords of the Levites in the Golden Calf incident. Philo then seems to import the number of the dead from Number 25 into his account of the Golden Calf incident.” Mody concludes, “It suggests at the least that a first century exegete was capable of linking the Golden Calf and Baal Peor incidents together” (Mody, “The Case of the Missing Thousand,” 69). Mody also notes the textual connections between Exodus 32 and Numbers 25: “idolatry (Exod. 32:4; Num. 25: 1-3;20), food offered to idols (Exod. 32:6, Num. 25:2), sexual immorality (Exod. 32:6, Num. 25;1), God’s wrath (Exod. 32; 10, Num. 25:3f), a slaughter (Exod. 32:28, Num. 25:3f), the action of Levites/a Levite (Exod. 32:28; Num. 25:7), a blessing upon the Levites/a Levite (Exod. 32:29; Num. 25:12f), and a ‘plague’ (Exod. 32:35; Num. 25:8f)” (Mody, “The Case of the Missing Thousand,” 71).
The second objection is that Exodus 32 deals with idolatry, not sexual immorality. However, God describes Israel’s rebellion in general as “sexual immorality” or “whoredom” in Numbers 14:33 and 15:39, as does Psalm 106:39. It follows that Israel’s idolatry in Exodus 32 (and not just the sexual sin of Numbers 25) was a form of spiritual “whoredom.” This point comes from Numbers 14 and 15, where the spies and people of Israel rebelled against God and out of fear refused to enter the Promised Land. As punishment for such “grumbling” (Numbers 14:27, 29, 36), God declared they would wander in the wilderness for 40 years, saying:
and you shall bear your whoredoms [זְנוּת] until your corpses are completed in the wilderness” (Numbers 14:33).
While modern translations tend to translate zenoot (זְנוּת) as “faithlessness” (ESV) or “unfaithfulness” (NASB, LSB), older translations used the literal “whoredoms” (KJV). The Greek LXX uses πορνείαν (porneia, “fornication/sexual immorality”), and the Latin Vulgate says fornicationem. (The NASB and LSB at least footnote “fornications” in Numbers 14:33.) The ESV, NASB, and LSB translate zenoot as “harlotry/whoring/prostitution” in all eight other uses of the word in the OT, but they depart from the literal translation here. Now the modern translations are not technically incorrect, as the verse certainly indicates unfaithfulness toward God. However, God Himself uses the language of sexual immorality to describe Israel’s behavior. God considered all their grumbling against Him to be spiritual whoredom. Such grumbling began even in Exodus (15:24; 16:2, 7-8; 17:3), using the same word found in Numbers 14:2, 27, 29, 36 (לון). (Also following this language is Westminster Larger Catechism Q & A 110 on the Second Commandment, which refers to God’s “revengeful indignation against all false worship, as being a spiritual whoredom.”)
There is also a connection in the next chapter, Numbers 15:39, with the verb form zanah (זנה) (“to fornicate,” “to be a harlot,” “play the whore”). God commanded the Israelites to wear tassels as a reminder of God’s commands, “so that you do them and not seek [or “spy”] after your heart and after your eyes, which you whored after.” The verb zanah here is a participle [זֹנִ֖ים], from the same root as zanoot in Numbers 14:33. But here the modern translations (inconsistently) go literal—“which you are inclined to whore after” (ESV), and “after which you played the harlot” (NASB, LSB). The KJV consistently says “after which ye use to go a whoring” (KJV). The LXX has ἐκπορνεύετε and the Vulgate fornicantes. (Similarly, Psalm 73:27 says of God, “you destroy everyone who whores [זוֹנֶ֥ה] from you.”)
Now here is the point, which is missed in many modern English translations—God describes Israel’s grumbling and rebellion in Numbers as “sexual immorality” or “whoredom” (Numbers 14:33; 15:39). We may think of grumbling as some small sin, but God says it is spiritual harlotry. This language is picked up in Psalm 106:14-34, as the psalmist links the wilderness rebellion in Numbers and the golden calf incident. Psalm 106 mentions Israel’s “grumbling” in Numbers (Psalm 106:4-18, 23-27), the golden calf incident of Exodus 32 (Psalm 106:19), the sexual immorality with Baal of Peor in Numbers 25 (Psalm 106:28-31), and other sins—and then the psalmist summarizes it all by saying Israel “played the whore [וַ֝יִּזְ֗נוּ] in their deeds” (Psalm 106:39).
1 Corinthians 10:8 and Psalm 106:39
Thus, when Paul twice uses the verb porneuo (πορνεύω) in 1 Corinthians 10:8, he is very likely drawing on God’s own description for Israel’s grumbling in the wilderness as described in Psalm 106:39. (Paul uses the exact word found in Psalm 106:39 [105:39, LXX], ἐπόρνευσαν.) The noun form porneia (πορνεία) is used in Numbers 14:33 for Israel’s spiritual harlotry against God, and a similar verb ekporneuo (ἐκπορνεύω) is used in Numbers 15:39. That same verb is also used in Numbers 25:1, where Israel “whored” with the daughters of Moab. Physical harlotry stems from spiritual harlotry, and the idolatry of Exodus 32 and Israel’s spiritual whoredoms led to the sexual harlotry of Numbers 25.
So Paul follows Psalm 106 in summarizing the negative example of Israel in Exodus and Numbers when he says, “Nor let us commit sexual immorality [πορνεύωμεν], as some of them committed sexual immorality [ἐπόρνευσαν], and 23,000 fell in one day” (1 Corinthians 10:8). That Paul is providing such a summary is supported by the fact that 1 Corinthians 10:6-11 forms a chiasm, with v. 6 and v. 11 speaking of “these things” being an “example” for us. Paul mentions five of Israel’s sins—evil desire (v. 6), idolatry (v. 7), sexual immorality (v. 8), testing Christ (v. 9), grumbling (v. 10). This leaves the sin of “sexual immorality” in the middle:
A. Now these things happened as examples for us
B. so that we might not desire evil as they desired (v. 6)
B. Nor be idolaters as some of them were (v. 7)
C. Nor let us commit sexual immorality, as some of them committed sexual
immorality (v. 8)
B. Nor let us test the Christ, as some of them tested (v. 9)
B. Nor grumble, as some of them grumbled (v. 10)
A. Now these things happened to them as an example (v. 11)
Like Psalm 106:39 saying Israel “whored” in their rebellion, Paul is saying that evil desire, idolatry, sexual immorality, testing God, and grumbling are all forms of spiritual “whoredom.” That is the way to summarize all of Israel’s sin against God in the wilderness. If Paul wanted to use a word to summarily describe all of Israel’s rebellion in the wilderness, this was it. Paul’s warning against committing whoredom (porneuo) in 1 Corinthians 10:8 is a reference to all of Israel’s sins and grumblings in the wilderness, not just the explicit sexual sin of Numbers 25. Following the pattern of Psalm 106, Paul appeals to both Exodus 32 and Numbers 25, and he combines the numbers from both to form 23,000 in order summarize Israel’s rebellion—and then he calls us to not follow Israel in this behavior.
Christ in the Wilderness
It is also noteworthy that Paul says the Israelites tested not just God, but specifically Christ, in the wilderness (1 Corinthians 10:9). There is a textual variant of “Lord” here instead of “Christ,” but apart from the NASB, most translations go with “Christ.” (The majority of manuscripts read “Christ,” though some Alexandrian manuscripts say “Lord” or “God.” However, these latter words appear to be intentional changes to “Christ,” and it does not make sense that scribes would have put “Christ” instead of the general references to God.) Regardless, Paul says the “rock was Christ” earlier in 10:4. So the point stands either way. Similarly Jude warns us, “Jesus, who saved a people from the land of Egypt, later destroyed those who did not believe” (Jude 5). (There is also also a textual variant here, as the NASB says “Lord” instead of “Jesus.” But “Jesus” has strong manuscript support.)
Accordingly, Paul says these things that happened to the Israelites in the Book of Numbers serve as “examples” (τύποι, “types”) for us and were written down for “our instruction” (1 Corinthians 10:6, 11). Christians would do well to heed the warnings of Israel in Exodus and Numbers by fleeing grumbling, sexual immorality, and idolatry—and the temptation to commit such—and instead turning to Christ (1 Corinthians 10:13-14). As Paul proclaims, “So let the one who thinks he stands take heed so that he does not fall” (1 Corinthians 10:12).
Israel consistently rebelled against authority over them. They rebelled against Moses (Numbers 12) and against the priests (Numbers 16), all of which was rebellion against God Himself (Numbers 16:11). Christians today must be careful not to rebel against God, and that means not rebelling against the authority structures He instituted. Christians should submit to their elders (1 Peter 5:5), wives should submit to their husbands (Ephesians 5:22, 24; Colossians 3:18), and children should obey their parents (Ephesians 6:1; Colossians 3:20). So long as such authorities are acting within their authority, God demands obedience. And to rebel against His appointed authority is to incur His wrath and judgment, seen in the Book of Numbers.
Warnings in the Psalms
Paul’s appeal to Israel’s negative example in the Pentateuch is in line with not only Psalm 106 but also other warnings in the Psalms. Psalm 73:27 says of God, “you destroy everyone who whores from you,” using the same Hebrew verb in Numbers 15:39 for Israel “whoring” after their own desires in the wilderness. The noun form is used Numbers 14:33—“and you shall bear your whoredoms until your corpses are completed in the wilderness” (see above for the details). Instead of straying from God, Psalm 73 calls us to make God our refuge (v. 28) and desire nothing above Him (v. 25).
Psalm 78 speaks of God establishing His law for parents to “teach to their children” that they might hope in God and not forget His works and “not be like their fathers, a stubborn and rebellious generation, a generation that did not make its heart firm, and whose spirit was not faithful to God” (Psalm 78:5-8). The psalmist calls God’s people to not follow Israel’s rebellion in the wilderness but instead trust God, and then teach their children to trust Him.
Additionally, God in Psalm 95 says, “Do not harden your hearts, as at Meribah, as in the day of Massah in the wilderness, when your fathers tested me and tried me” (Psalm 95:8-9). God said, “Therefore I swore in my anger, they shall never enter my rest” (Psalm 95:11). The author of Hebrews quotes this passage (Hebrews 3:7-11; 4:3, 5, 7) and exhorts Christians to enter God’s rest (Hebrews 3:7–4:13). We are to embrace God’s promise of rest and enter God’s eternal Sabbath (Hebrews 4:1, 9). As the author says, “Therefore let us make every effort to enter that rest, so that no one may fall by the same example of disobedience” (Hebrews 4:11).
Both Paul in 1 Corinthians 10 and the author of Hebrews look back to Israel’s rebellion in the wilderness as a negative example for the church today. In doing so, they follow the teaching set down in Psalm 73, 78, 95, and 106. Rather than falling into unbelief and testing God, we are to trust in Christ the Rock. Rebellion against God—including those He has placed in authority—is spiritual whoredom that leads to judgment. But faith leads to blessing and eternal life.
[1] Paul’s Greek words for 23,000 in 1 Corinthians 10:8 is εἴκοσι τρεῖς χιλιάδες. This does not exactly match any of the possible references from the Septuagint of Exodus and Numbers:
εἴκοσι τρεῖς χιλιάδες (1 Corinthians 10:8)
τρισχιλίους (Exodus 32:28 [LXX])
τέσσαρες καὶ εἴκοσι χιλιάδες (Numbers 25:9 [LXX])
τρεῖς καὶ εἴκοσι χιλιάδες (Numbers 26:62 [LXX])